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The Ancient Hebrew Chiasm: A Window into Culturally Significant Themes
by Hannah Eckerman

Introduction
Rhetoric is culturally constructed. No universal rhetoric exists but is built on a culture’s ideas, beliefs, history, and art. We take on the cultural mindset of the rhetor when we read their texts, otherwise, we lose the depth and beauty hidden within their words. When we read Ancient Greek literature, we must learn some of their background and context. When we read Jane Austen, we need to understand the social structures at work in 19th England. Therefore, when we read the Hebrew Tanakh or any ancient Hebrew text, we need to approach it with cultural context. In this essay, I provide the historical background and cultural context necessary to understand a common, yet powerful, linguistic structure used by the ancient Hebrews in their sacred writings. Once terms are defined, I explore examples from their writing to give us insight into religiously significant ideas. Ultimately, I argue that the chiasm, an ancient Hebrew linguistic tool, conveys culturally significant themes in the middle X point of the chiastic structure.

Historical Background
Historical Context
In this study, I analyze passages from what is modernly known as the Old Testament, a sacred text used by several distinct religions: Protestant Christianity, Catholic Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. I will, however, refer to this book as the Herew Tanakh, since this study is only focused on the original ancient Hebrew version of the text. The Tanakh is the Hebrew Bible, composed of three sections: the Torah, the Nevi’im, and the Ketuvim. The content is the same

between the Old Testament and the Tanakh, however, the organization is different. Two terms that are helpful to know when studying the Tanakh are “Hebrews” and “Yahweh.” I will explain both terms in this opening section. The writers of the Tanakh were the ancient Hebrews, predecessors of modern-day Jews. The ancient Hebrews get their name from their lineage tied to Abraham through the son God promised him, Isaac. The Hebrews have many other names that are used in their ancient texts; however, we will use Hebrews or ancient Hebrews here to include the parts of the Tanakh that pre-date the other names.

According to the Tanakh, the ancient Hebrews’ religious text, Yahweh is the name the Hebrews’ God gives himself when speaking to Moses. He led the Hebrews out of slavery in Egypt and was used by Yahweh to teach the people the Ten Commandments, or the law. After Yahweh brought them out of Egypt, he led them to the promised land where they took back the land Yahweh had promised Abraham. Moses is also the writer of the Torah: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These five books lay the groundwork for the ancient Hebrews’ religion, by establishing their historical narrative and law. Roughly 500 years after Moses, Israel was split into two kingdoms: Israel and Judah. Due to their disobedience to Yahweh, Israel went into captivity in 708 B.C., and 120 years later Judah went into exile. This historical narrative laid out in the Hebrew Tanakh provides the necessary context to explore the religious themes found within the text.

Ancient Hebrew Themes
The study of important ancient Hebrew themes is essential for the analysis of the linguistic structures found in their writing. These themes almost always are born out of the events that take place in the first five books of the Hebrew Tanakh and then they are developed throughout the rest of the text. We will consider three of these important themes in this paper. One important theme is found in the first three chapters of Genesis. In these chapters we see the creation of man, the introduction of evil through sin, and the promise of a Messiah, one who would rid the world of evil and restore humanity to their relationship with Yahweh. The Ten Commandments or the law of God is another important theme. The law of God is central to the ancient Hebrew belief system, and it establishes the binary between good and evil. Another important theme is the conflict between the true God, Yahweh, and the false gods that the pagans surrounding the Hebrew peoples worshipped. In many passages these false gods are ridiculed for their lack of power and compared to the all-powerful Yahweh. I claim in this paper that these themes are often conveyed using the middle X point in a chiasm.

The Chiasm
To express these important themes, the ancient Hebrews utilized sophisticated linguistic structures, one of which is the chiasm. This structure differs from the abundant parallelism found on nearly every page of the Hebrew Tanakh. WGE Watson, a researcher of semitic (Hebrew, Arabic, etc.) languages and linguistics, proposes that “The basic function of chiasmus is to relieve the monotony of persistent parallelism” (205). Parallelism is the repetition of an exact line twice, which happens consistently in the Psalms. For example, Psalm chapter 130 verse 6 “My soul waits for the Lord more than watchmen for the morning, more than watchmen for the morning” (ESV). This repetition of the same phrase twice was intended to create additional emotion and heighten the intensity of the passage (Casanowicz).

The chiasm has a different structure and a different purpose in the ancient Hebrews’ writings. It is, “a sequence of elements of a sentence, verse, paragraph, chapter, or even book which are then repeated and developed – but in reverse order” (Biblical Chiasm Exchange). For example, the phrase “when the going gets tough, the tough gets going” is a simple chiastic structure in English.

When the going [A]
gets tough, [B]
the tough [B’]
gets going. [A’]

When chiasmus, the plural form of chiasm, are studied, a letter system is used to show the parallels in the text. For our example, going = [A] and tough = [B], so this gives us the equation ABB’A’. Many of the examples we find in Hebrew scriptures take the pattern ABXB’A’, with the X being the crucial point or important message in the chiasm. Hebrew writers used chiastic structures in poetic verses, paragraph structures, and to form whole books. The examples studied in this paper exemplify how the middle X point of chiasmus were used to convey culturally significant themes in the Hebrew Tanakh.

Isaiah 1:21-26
A poetic chiasmus is found in the prophetic book of Isaiah written by the prophet of the same name. Isaiah writes long after King David has died, and the kingdom of Israel has fallen into disobedience to Yahweh. Isaiah speaks to the Kingdom of Israel, after it has split into Israel,

the North kingdom and Judah, the South kingdom; he warns them that unless they stop disobeying Yahweh they will be captured by Assyria, a rival nation. This passage describes how Yahweh’s people are being unfaithful to Him and how Yahweh intends to redeem them despite their disobedience.

v.21 How the faithful city [A]
has become a whore, [B]
she who was full of justice!
Righteousness lodged in her, [C]
but now murderers.
v.22 Your silver has become dross, [D]
your best wine mixed with water.
v.23 Your princes are rebels [E]
and companions of thieves.
Everyone loves a bribe
and runs after gifts.
They do not bring justice to the fatherless,
and the widow’s cause does not come to them.
v.24 Therefore the LORD declares, [X]
the LORD of hosts,
the Mighty One of Israel:
“Ah, I will get relief from my enemies [E’]
and avenge myself on my foes.
v.25 I will turn my hand against you
and will smelt away your dross with lye [D’]
and remove all your alloy.
v.26 And I will restore your judges as at the first, [C’]
and your counselors as at the beginning.
Afterward you shall be called the city of righteousness [B’],
the faithful city.” [A’] (ESV).

[A] is the faithful city, this city is likely the city of Jerusalem, which was the capital of Israel at the time. By referencing the city, he is not singling out Jerusalem, but Jerusalem stands for the nation of Israel as a whole. In the first half, Isaiah remembers the past faithfulness of the city, and in the second half Isaiah foresees the future faithfulness of the city. [B] is the current unfaithfulness of the city; while [B’] calls the city righteous. [C] illustrates justice and righteousness. In the first half, justice and righteousness are absent from the city. But in the second half, they are reinstituted. [D] recognizes the wealth of the city, the first half visualizes the current poverty of the city, and the second half prophesies its future wealth. [E] refers to the enemies against the city. [X], the center of the chiasm, emphasizes a singular point: Yahweh Himself. This chiasm emphasizes Yahweh’s presence and reflects on His power. In the second half of the chiasm, we see a shift in the city’s description, no longer is it a hopeless reality, now it has the promise of a renewed future. The turning point is Yahweh. He is the one changing the future of the unfaithful city into a city of righteousness through His power. The people of Jerusalem have been redeemed to pursue faithfulness. This is an important theme throughout the Tanakh: despite the Hebrews’ unfaithfulness, Yahweh will deliver them to faithfulness.

To show the significance of the middle X point, the first example of this theme is found in the garden of Eden. When Adam and Eve sin against Yahweh they are punished for their sin and sent to live outside of the garden, but first Yahweh makes them a promise. Despite their unfaithfulness, He promises to restore them. He says to the serpent, who tempted Eve to sin against Him, “he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel” (Genesis 3:15b). While highly debated today, most ancient Hebrew rabbis (teachers) held that this was a messianic prophecy, that one day a Savior would come to restore the Hebrew people to an Eden-like state. The Targum Neofiti writes of Genesis 3:15, “There will be healing for his son (the man’s), but for you, O serpent, there will not be healing, for they will make appeasement at the last, in the day of King Messiah.” An unfaithful race of humans will be healed and make appeasement in the last day because of the Messiah.

While the Genesis passage shows the overarching theme for humanity, in Deuteronomy, the fifth book in the Torah, we find this theme applied to the Hebrews specifically. In Deuteronomy, we find the Hebrews about to re-enter the promised land. Moses, their leader, is giving them his final words in the book of Deuteronomy. Moses predicts that the Hebrews will not be able to keep the law that Yahweh has just given them, and that because of that they will be cursed to be exiled into foreign countries. However, He does not leave them with no hope. He says in Deuteronomy 30:1, 3-4, “And when all these things have come upon you, both the blessing and the curse, … He (Yahweh) will gather you again from all the peoples where the LORD your God has scattered you.” This prophecy spoken by Moses in Deuteronomy is being re-prophesied in the first chapter of Isaiah’s prophecies. This highlights the deep roots to the theme found in the middle X point of Isaiah 1:21-26: even though Israel has turned to evil, Yahweh will bring them back and restore them to righteous living.

Joshua 1:5-9
Although poetry is where chiasmus are more easily recognized, they can also be found in Hebrew prose writing. One such example is in the first chapter of the book of Joshua, written by Joshua, the leader of Israel after Moses’ death. The book is a historical narrative of the Hebrews re-entering their promised land and driving out the people groups who were inhabiting it at the time. Italics were added to highlight the important phrases for the chiastic structure to be recognized.

5 No man shall be able to stand before you all the days of your life. Just as I was with Moses, so I will be with you [A]. I will not leave you or forsake you. 6 Be strong and courageous [B], for you shall cause this people to inherit the land that I swore to their fathers to give them. 7 Only be strong and very courageous, being careful to do according to all the law that Moses my servant commanded you [C]. Do not turn from it to the right hand or the left, that you may have good success [D] wherever you go. 8 This Book of the Law [X] shall not depart from your mouth, but you shall meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do according to all that is written in it. For then you will make your way prosperous, and then you will have good success [D’]. 9 Have I not commanded you [C’]? Be strong and courageous [B’]. Do not be frightened, and do not be dismayed, for the LORD your God is with you wherever you go [A’] (ESV).

The chiasm is direct in this passage: Joshua is emphasizing the words of Yahweh. The “Book of the Law” signifies the Ten commandments. Traditionally, these were given to Moses by Yahweh on top of Mount Sinai, therefore it represents the literal words of God. This moment in the narrative of Joshua precedes the Hebrews driving out the other nations in their promised land. Joshua, the person Yahweh is speaking to in chapter 1, is the captain of the Hebrew army. There is almost exact wording used both ways in this chiasm. There is no change in attitude after the middle [X] point like we see in Isaiah, but what we do find is a clear central figure noted by [X]: the Book of the Law. Yahweh emphasizes to Joshua and the people of Israel that they must remember His words and commands as they journey into the promised land. The Book of the Law was understood to be the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Tanakh, and more specifically the 10 commandments given in Exodus chapter 20. The importance of obeying the law is established in Exodus chapter 19 verses 4 through 6, which establishes the law as a covenant between Israel and Yahweh. Yahweh speaks through Moses’ to the people:

4 ‘You yourselves have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to myself. 5 Now therefore, if you will obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured possession among all peoples, for all the earth is mine, 6 and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation’ (ESV).

Jeremiah 10:11
The book of Jeremiah was prophesied by Jeremiah and written down by his scribe Baruch. The contents of the book begin in Judah before their exile in Babylon and carry over into the exile. Jeremiah 10:11 gives us an example of how the Hebrew writers stacked chiastic structures. We find three distinct yet congruent chiasmus involving this verse. First, it is a simple chiasm with just the singular verse Jeremiah 10:11.

11 The gods who did not make the heavens and the earth [A] shall perish [X] from the earth and from under the heavens [A] (ESV).

This passage places the phrase “shall perish” in the middle emphasizing the important Hebrew theme that all other gods besides Yahweh will be wiped away with the power of Yahweh. The verses surrounding verse 11, also create a chiasm with verse 11 as the middle X point. Verses 11-16 of the passage forms a chiasm which contrasts with verse 11’s middle X point that all other gods will perish, by stating that Yahweh is the only one with power and he will not be wiped away.

The final chiastic structure we find here is in the spoken sound of the Aramaic language in verse 11. This verse is the only one in the scroll of Jeremiah that is written in Aramaic, the rest of the scroll is in Hebrew. The NET Bible translators express this verse’s significance “The structure is further reinforced by the sound play/wordplay between ‘did not make’ (Aram לָאא עֲבַדוודב לֲַ ע [la’ ’avadu]) and ‘will disappear’ (Aram יֵאבַדוודבא יֵַ [ye’vadu]). This is the rhetorical climax of

Jeremiah’s sarcastic attack on the folly of idolatry” (Biblical Studies Press). This verse in Jeremiah provides an interesting example since the writer of the scroll of Jeremiah (Baruch the son of Neriah scribed the prophecies spoken by Jeremiah the prophet) wrote the entire 52-chapter book in Hebrew except for this one verse. He likely did this intentionally to create the chiasm that would not exist in the Hebrew language but does in the Aramaic.

Psalm 142:1
A two-line chiasm found in the Tanakh is in Psalm 142:1. Many of the Psalms were written by King David, and they often describe the relationship between Yahweh and man. David ruled over the nation of Israel before the nation was divided into the North and South kingdoms. This specific verse is chiastic (chiastic is a term used to focus on the structural rather than conceptual aspect of the chiasm) but it is difficult to recognize the pattern in English translations.

v.1 With my voice I cry out to the LORD;
With my voice I plead for mercy to the Lord. (ESV)

It appears that the second line is only a restatement of the first in our English translations, but when looking at the original form the chiastic structure becomes apparent. Here is a more literal translation from Hebrew (Hebrew is read from right to left):

v.1 ב קוֹלִי,וֹקלי, בִ (A prayer with my voice) [A]

אֶלל-ֶיְהוָה אֶזְעָקקעזוהא יְְֶָָ א- ; (unto the LORD); [B]

אֶלל-ֶיְהוָה אֶתְחַנָּן.נּתןחוהא. יְְֶַָָ א- (unto the LORD) [B’]

קוֹלִי,וֹלי, קִ (I cried with my voice). [A’]

We can see the chiastic structure more clearly in its original form. Something this structure lacks, however, is the traditional middle X point, where the ancient Hebrews would have placed emphasis on a thematic idea. Since the chiasm is intrinsic to the Hebrew linguistic system, we find that many of them are an elevated form of parallelism and not being used in the same way as most chiasmus. Every passage that has chiastic structure is seemingly not the writer’s intentional choice. It is important to note that the difference is the presence of the middle X point. When the middle X point is present, we find an emphasis on a specific culturally significant theme, but when it is absent it is usually only another form of parallelism.

Conclusion
The chiasm of the ancient Hebrews was the conduit for many of the Hebrews culturally significant themes in their religious text the Tanakh. The themes of the Messiah, the law of God, and the destruction of false gods are littered throughout the books and point to important moments between the Hebrew people and their God, Yahweh. Without the middle X point in the Hebrews’ chiasmus, there would not be any elevation of a single thought or belief since it is found amidst parallel passages. The middle X point allowed the ancient Hebrew writers to convey their important themes and ideas without it blending into the surrounding text. The theme, instead, is able to enhance the text and gives new meaning to other elements in the structure. This paper only provides a small set of examples of this powerful linguistic device in the Hebrew Tanakh, and even more truths can be understood as we investigate this topic further.

Works Cited
Biblical Studies Press. The NET Bible First Edition Notes. Biblical Studies Press, 2006.

Casanowicz, I. M.. “Parallelism in Hebrew Poetry.” Jewish Encyclopedia, https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11902-parallelism-in-hebrew-poetry.

“Chiasmus in the Scriptures.” Biblical Chiasm Exchange. Accessed October 20, 2022. https://www.chiasmusxchange.com/explanatory-notes/.

English Standard Version Bible. trans. English Standard Version, Crossway, 2005.

Watson, Wilfred G. E.. Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to its Techniques. Norfolk: T&T Clark International, 2005.

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Hannah Eckerman is a Senior English Literature major minoring in linguistics at the University of North Georgia. Hannah hopes to get further linguistic training and one day work with oral languages doing language documentation. In her free time, she enjoys reading, photography, and rock climbing.

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